Sudan

Sudan is a large country located in northeastern Africa, bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic and Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest. Covering an area of approximately 1.86 million square kilometers, it is one of the largest countries in Africa. Its geography is highly diverse, ranging from arid deserts in the north to savanna grasslands in the south, with the Nile River system forming the country’s most important physical and economic lifeline.

Much of northern and central Sudan is dominated by the Sahara and Nubian deserts, characterized by extremely low rainfall, high temperatures, and sparse vegetation. Moving southward, the landscape gradually transitions into semi-arid Sahelian zones and then into more humid savanna regions. The Nile River, including its main tributaries—the White Nile and Blue Nile—runs through the country from south to north and is crucial for agriculture, settlement, and water supply. The Nile Valley and its surrounding floodplains form some of the most fertile and densely populated areas in Sudan.

Sudan experiences a predominantly hot desert and semi-arid climate, with strong north–south variation in rainfall. The northern regions receive minimal precipitation, often less than 100 mm annually, while southern areas may receive over 800 mm. Rainfall is seasonal, typically occurring between June and September in the south and central regions. Temperatures are generally high throughout the year, especially in desert areas, where extreme heat is common. This climatic pattern makes agriculture heavily dependent on irrigation and seasonal rainfall.
Agriculture is a central component of Sudan’s economy and livelihoods, employing a large proportion of the population and contributing significantly to domestic food supply and exports. The sector is divided between traditional rain-fed farming, irrigated agriculture along the Nile, and mechanized farming in parts of the central clay plains. The diversity of agricultural systems reflects the country’s wide range of ecological zones.

The principal food crops grown in Sudan include sorghum, millet, wheat, maize, and legumes such as beans and groundnuts. Sorghum and millet are the dominant staples, especially in rain-fed regions, due to their resilience to drought and poor soils. Wheat is mainly cultivated in irrigated schemes along the Nile during the cooler season. Sesame and gum arabic are among Sudan’s most important cash crops, with gum arabic being a globally significant export product derived from acacia trees in the savanna belt.

Large-scale irrigated agriculture is concentrated along the Nile and its tributaries, particularly in schemes such as the Gezira Plain between the Blue and White Nile. These areas support cotton, wheat, sugarcane, and vegetable production. The Gezira Scheme is one of the largest irrigation projects in Africa and has historically been central to Sudan’s agricultural economy. Mechanized rain-fed farming is also practiced in parts of central Sudan, where sorghum and sesame are cultivated on extensive farms.

Livestock production is another major pillar of Sudanese agriculture. Cattle, sheep, goats, and camels are widely raised, with pastoralism and agro-pastoralism playing an especially important role in rural livelihoods. Livestock movement is often seasonal, following rainfall patterns and the availability of pasture and water. Animal products such as meat, milk, and hides contribute to both subsistence and trade, including cross-border commerce with neighboring countries.

Despite its significant agricultural potential, Sudan faces numerous challenges. These include recurrent droughts, desertification, soil degradation, limited infrastructure, and the impacts of political instability and conflict. Water scarcity in northern regions and variability in rainfall in rain-fed areas significantly affect productivity. Additionally, climate change is expected to intensify heat stress and rainfall variability, further complicating agricultural planning and food security.

Efforts to improve agriculture in Sudan have focused on expanding irrigation infrastructure, improving drought-resistant crop varieties, rehabilitating degraded land, and supporting both smallholder and commercial farming systems. However, progress is uneven due to economic and political constraints.

The relationship between geography and agriculture in Sudan is highly direct and fundamental. The Nile River system, climatic gradients from desert to savanna, and differences in soil and rainfall conditions determine the distribution of farming systems across the country. Irrigated agriculture dominates in river valleys, rain-fed cultivation in central regions, and pastoralism in drier zones. Geography therefore remains the key factor shaping agricultural patterns, livelihoods, and development prospects in Sudan.

After completing his master's thesis on dairy cow husbandry in Malawi, Gerold accepted an offer from Prof. Manig at the University of Göttingen to research animal husbandry in the Sahel and pursue a PhD. Although he had recently met and married Klaudia, who was pregnant, he left for Sudan in August 1991. Due to severe drought, the planned 16-month field stay was shortened to April 1992. In Sudan, Gerold lived for months with the nomadic Shukria and Rashaida tribes east of Khartoum, studying how drought affected their livelihoods. He observed both the resilience of nomadic traditions and the inequalities created by power, wealth, and political systems. Experiences such as female infibulation, the application of Sharia punishments, and the displacement of the poor challenged his tolerance and shaped his views on social justice. The conditions were extremely harsh: temperatures reached 60°C during the day, food was scarce, malaria was common, and communication with home was nearly impossible. Despite adapting to life in the Sahel, he struggled with loneliness and separation from his wife. An ethnologist working alongside him, Heike Bremm, was unable to cope with the conditions, returned to Germany, and later died from consequences of the fieldwork. Living in a simple tent and moving regularly with nomadic groups, Gerold experienced their hospitality and survival strategies firsthand. He also enjoyed traveling to regional markets and along the Atbara and Blue Nile rivers. The experience was one of the most challenging of his life, but it profoundly changed his perspective, helped him complete his doctoral thesis, and provided valuable personal and professional lessons.