Mongolia

Mongolia is a large landlocked country in East and Central Asia, situated between Russia to the north and China to the south. Covering approximately 1.56 million square kilometers, it is one of the largest countries in the world by area but has a relatively small population. Mongolia is characterized by vast open landscapes, including steppes, mountains, deserts, and grasslands. The country’s geography is dominated by the Mongolian Plateau, while major mountain systems such as the Altai, Khangai, and Khentii ranges occupy the western, central, and northern regions. Southern Mongolia contains the Gobi Desert, one of the world’s largest deserts, which consists not only of sand dunes but also rocky plains and semi-arid landscapes. The climate is strongly continental, with long, cold winters, short summers, low precipitation, and large temperature variations between seasons. These harsh climatic conditions significantly influence agricultural activities and settlement patterns.

Agriculture is an important component of Mongolia’s economy, although it is dominated by livestock production rather than crop cultivation. Due to the country's cold climate, short growing season, and limited arable land, crop farming is concentrated mainly in the more fertile northern and central regions. The principal crops include wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, vegetables, and fodder crops. Wheat is the most important cereal crop and plays a significant role in national food security. Vegetables such as cabbage, carrots, onions, and turnips are cultivated near urban centers and agricultural settlements. Irrigation is limited, and agricultural production is often vulnerable to droughts, extreme weather events, and soil degradation.

Livestock husbandry is the foundation of Mongolian agriculture and has been central to the country's culture and economy for centuries. The extensive grasslands and steppe ecosystems support large herds of sheep, goats, cattle, horses, camels, and yaks. Traditional nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralism remains widespread, with herders moving seasonally in search of grazing land and water. Sheep and goats are particularly important for meat, milk, and wool production. Mongolia is internationally known for its cashmere industry, which is based on the fine wool produced by cashmere goats. Horses also have strong cultural significance and are used for transportation, racing, and dairy production, including the preparation of fermented mare’s milk (airag). Livestock production contributes substantially to rural livelihoods, exports, and food security.

Forestry resources are concentrated mainly in northern Mongolia, where climatic conditions are more favorable. Forests cover roughly 8–10 percent of the country's territory and consist primarily of boreal (taiga) forests dominated by larch, pine, cedar, spruce, and birch. These forests provide timber, fuelwood, medicinal plants, nuts, and other forest products. They also play an important ecological role by protecting watersheds, preventing soil erosion, storing carbon, and supporting biodiversity. However, Mongolia's forests face pressures from illegal logging, forest fires, insect infestations, mining activities, and climate change. Conservation programs and sustainable forest management initiatives have therefore become increasingly important for maintaining forest health and ecological stability.

The fishery sector in Mongolia is relatively small due to the country's landlocked location and harsh climate. Fisheries are based entirely on inland water bodies, including rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. Major lakes such as Khövsgöl Lake and numerous river systems support fish species including taimen, lenok, grayling, carp, and pike. Fishing is mainly conducted on a small scale for local consumption and recreation rather than as a major commercial industry. Aquaculture remains underdeveloped but has shown some growth in recent years. The sector faces challenges including habitat degradation, overfishing of certain species, pollution, and the impacts of climate change on freshwater ecosystems.

Overall, Mongolia’s geography is characterized by vast steppes, mountain ranges, forests, and desert landscapes that shape its economic activities and natural-resource use. Livestock-based agriculture dominates the rural economy, while forestry and inland fisheries play smaller but environmentally important roles. Sustainable management of grasslands, forests, and freshwater resources is essential for protecting biodiversity, maintaining rural livelihoods, and ensuring long-term resilience in the face of climate change and environmental pressures.

Gerold was 2014 in Mongolia for some days in Ulan Bator.